A Practical Grammar of the PŒli Language
Chapter 5

Declension

116. (a) Declension is the adding to the stems of Nouns and Adjectives certain suffixes which show, case, gender and number.
(b) The stem or base of a noun is that noun as it stands before any suffix has been added to it.
(c) PŒli has three genders: the Masculine, the Feminine and the Neuter.
(d) PŒli does not strictly follow the natural division of male, female, etc, in assigning gender to nouns, many nouns which are Masculine in English are Feminine or Neuter in PŒli and vice-versa; a great number of nouns which we consider as neuter are, some Masculine, some Feminine in PŒli. This is called grammatical gender.
(e) There are two numbers: the singular and the plural.
(f) There are eight cases.

1. Nominative, showing the subject of the sentence.
2. Genitive, showing possession (of 's).
3. Dative, showing the object or person to or for whom something is given or done.
4. Accusative, this is the object of the sentence.
5. Instrumentive, shows the object or person with or by whom something is performed.
6. Ablative, generally showing separation, expressed by from.
7. Locative, showing place (in, on, at, upon, etc.).
8. Vocative, used in addressing persons.

Remarks. The student will find fuller explanations of the uses of the cases in the chapter on Syntax.

117. The declension of nouns is divided into two great divisions:
(a) Vowel-declension, comprising all the stems that end in a vowel.
(b) Consonantal, declension, in which are included all the stems ending in a consonant.
(c) Vowel-declension is generally, for the sake of clearness, divided again into three classes:
(i) the declension of stems ending in a or Œ.
(ii) the declension of stems ending in i or ´.
(iii) the declension of stems ending in u or è.

118. (a) Native grammarians give the following as the regular case endings or suffixes for all nouns.

(b) Most of the above suffixes are theoretical only, in practice they differ considerably according to gender and case.

The actual suffixes will be given with each declension.

Vowel Declension

Declension of stems ending in a (short)

119. (a) The great bulk of nouns and adjectives belong to this declension, and as the other declensions have borrowed several of its suffixes, its thorough mastery is most important and will greatly facilitate the study of the other declensions.
(b) Nouns ending in a, are all masculine or neuter.

120. The following are the suffixes of masculine nouns the stem of which ends in a:

121. These suffixes have to be attached to the stems, taking care to observe the sandhi rules which may apply when suffixes begin with a vowel; in every case the student should accustom himself to look up the rules, which will be referred to by their numbers, and accustom himself to account for every form he meets with, whether nominal, verbal or derivative. He should remember that a systematic study from the start will ensure thoroughness and eventually save him a great deal of labour and time.

122. Declension of Deva, God, Angel

Exercise

Decline like deva (masc.):
nara, man. mŒtaºga, elephant.
byaggha, tiger. s´ha, lion.
miga, deer. orodha, a seraglio.
gandhabba, musician. dhamma, doctrine, right.
kacchapa, tortoise. putta, son.
satta, being. kèpa, a mast.
suµsumŒra, crocodile. makara, a sea monster.

Remarks.
(a) The true Dat. sing. in Œya has now generally been displaced by the suffix of the gen. ssa; the Dat. Œya is almost equal to an lnfinitive and mostly denotes intention.
(b) smŒ and mhŒ of the Abl. and smiµ and mhi of the Loc. have been borrowed from the pronominal declension (see Declension of Pronouns).
(c) so is sometimes used also as an Abl. sing. suffix:
vaggaso, by groups, bhŒgaso, by share.
(d) sŒ is also found as an Ins. sing. suffix, as: balasŒ, by force, forcibly, talasŒ, with the sole of the foot.
(e) The Nom. plur. in Œse, very scarce, corresponds to the Vedic Nom. plur.
(f) ebhi, of the Ins. and Abl. plural, is mostly used in poetry, and probably comes from the Vedic -ebhis.
(g) Before o, Nom. sing., ehi, ebhi, Ins. and Abl. plur. and e, Acc. plur. final a of the stem is dropped:
deva + o = dev + o = devo, deva + ehi = dev + ehi = devehi.
(h) Before su, Loc. plur. final a of stem is changed to e
(i) In the Dat., Ins., Abl. and Loc. sing.; and in Nom. and Voc. plur. the usual rules of sandhi are regularly followed:

(j) Before naµ, Gen. and Dat. plur., final a of the stem is lengthened.
deva + naµ = devŒ + naµ = devŒnaµ.

123. Neuter nouns in a (short)

124. Declension of Rèpa (Neuter), Form

Remarks.
(a) ni is essentially the distinctive sign of Neuter nouns in the Nom., Acc., and Voc. plur. in all declensions.
(b) The final vowel of the stem is lengthened before ni.

Exercise

Decline like rèpa:
citta, mind. sota, ear.
mèla, root, price. veÂuriya, coral.
upaÊÊhŒna, service. ahata, cloth (new).
jala, water. osŒna, end.
loöa, salt. savana, hearing.
vajira, diamond. sŒÊaka, garment.
vŒta, wind. pesana, despatch, sending.
yotta, rope. paÊÊana, a sea port.
yuddha, fight. paööa, leaf.

Remarks.
(a) It will be noticed that neuter nouns in a differ from the masculine in a, in the Nom. sing. and in the Nom. Acc. and Voc. plur.; all the other cases are identical.
(b) In the plur. the Nom., Acc. and Voc. have the same form.
(c) The form in Œni, of the Nom., Acc. and Voc. plur. is the most common.

125. Declension of nouns in Π(long)

All nouns ending in Πare Feminine.

126. Suffixes

127. Declension of Ka––Œ (Fem.), a Virgin

Remarks.
(a) Before to of the Abl. sing. the final vowel, if long, is shortened. So also before µ of Acc. sing.
(b) The following words all meaning mother have two forms in the Voc. sing:

(c) In the Acc. sing. final Πis shortened.

Exercise

Decline like ka––Œ:
saddhŒ, faith. medhŒ, intelligence.
vijjŒ, science. pa––Œ, wisdom.
taöhŒ, lust, thirst. mettŒ, love.
icchŒ, desire. bhikkhŒ, begged-food,
gŒthŒ, stanza, mŒlŒ, garland.
khi¶¶Œ, play, sport. pèjŒ, honour.
senŒ, army. chŒyŒ, shadow
nŒvŒ, boat. pipŒsŒ, thirst.
g´vŒ, throat. velŒ, time.

128. It has been said above (125) that all nouns ending in Œ are feminine; but there are a very few examples of masculine nouns ending in Œ. We give below their declension.

Remarks.
(a) the declension above given is according to rèpasiddhi grammar book.
(b) The declension given in the Saddaniti differs slightly:

The following are declined like sŒ:
paccakkhadhammŒ, one to whom the Doctrine is evident.
gaö¶´vandhavŒ, Arjuna.
mŒ, the moon.
rahŒ*, sin.
*niruttid´pan´, a scholium on moggallŒnavyŒkaraöa, a grammar held in high esteem in Ceylon and Burma.

Remarks. Masculine nouns in Πbelong to the Consonantal declension, but native grammarians, consider them as stems ending in a vowel.

129. Declension of nouns in i (short)

Nouns the stem of which ends in i are Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. They do not form a very numerous class.

130. Masc. nouns in i (suffixes)

131. Declension of Kapi (Masc.), Monkey

Remarks.
(a) The Nom. and Voc. sing. are like the stem.
(b) In the Nom., Acc. and Voc. plur., final i is changed to a before suffix yo.
(c) However final i is sometimes preserved before yo, so that we also have the form kapiyo (rare).
(d) In the plural, before suffixes: naµ, hi, bhi, su, final i is lengthened.
(e) Some rare and old forms are sometimes found:
(i) Gen. sing. ending in -e, as: mune.
(ii) Loc. sing. ending in -o, as: Œdo, and also
(iii) Loc. sing. ending in -e, as: gire.
(iv) Ins. sing. ending in -ena, as: raµsena.
(v) Nom. plur. ending in -no, as: saramatino.
(f) Not seldom, the stem itself is used for almost all the cases in the singular.

Exercise

Words declined like kapi (masc.):
aggi, fire. kali, sin.
sandhi, union. nidhi, a depository.
sŒrathi, a charioteer. yati, a monk
a–jali, salutation. ari, an enemy.
bondi, body. giri, a mountain.
èmi, a wave. bali, oblation.
senŒpati, a general. gahapati, householder.

Feminine nouns in i (short)

132. Suffixes

133. (a) Declension of Ratti (Fem.), Night

Remarks.
(a) There is an ancient Loc. sing. in o: ratto.
(b) An Abl. sing. in to, is also found: rattito.
(c) In the Gen., Dat., Ins., Abl. and Loc. sing. a y is inserted between the stem and the suffix Œ to avoid a hiatus, (See 27(ii) Remark 2); so also in the Loc. sing. before aµ.
(d) Before Œ, of the same cases, final i of the stem may become y by rule 27(i)-a; and as in PŒli there can be no group of three consonants* one t is dropped. Hence we get: ratti + Œ = rattyŒ = ratyŒ.
*Except ntr, as in antra, etc.
(e) Before suffixes, naµ, hi, bhi, su of the plural, the i of the stem is lengthened.

(b) Declension of JŒti (Fem.), Birth

Remarks.
(a) For the forms, jaccŒ and jaccaµ see rule (74).
(b) Jacco is obtained by the assimilation of y after the elision of final i. (71, 74).
(c) It will be remarked that, whereas in Masc. nouns in i the i of the stem is changed to a before yo, in Fem. nouns it is retained.

Exercise

Nouns declined like ratti (fem).
bhèmi, earth. keÂi, amusement.
satti, ability. nandi, joy.
patti, attainment. mati, understanding.
tuÊÊhi, satisfaction. mutti, deliverance.
Œsatti, attachment. vuddhi, increase.
dhèli. dust. ruci, splendour.
tanti, a string. chavi, the skin.
gati, going, rebirth. cuti, disappearance.
sati, recollection. diÊÊhi, sight, belief.

Neuter nouns in i (short)

134. Suffixes

Remarks.
(a) There is also found a Nom. sing. in µ like the Acc., as, aÊÊhiµ, bone, akkhiµ, eye, etc.
(b) As usual, final i is lengthened before ni, naµ, hi, bhi and su in the plural.

Exercise

Decline like vŒri (neut):
aÊÊhi, bone. satthi, the thigh.
akkhi, eye. dadhi, milk curds.
sappi, ghee. acchi, eye.
chadi, roof. rèpi, silver.

135. Declensions of nouns in ´ (Iong)

There are no Neuter nouns ending in ´ (long).

Masculine nouns in ´ (long)

136. Suffixes

Remarks.
(a) A Nom sing. in i (Short) is sometimes met with: daö¶i.
(b) Voc. sing. in ni is also found: daö¶ini.
(c) Note that in all the oblique cases of the singular the final i of the stem is shortened before the suffixes.
(d) In the Nom. plur. a rare form in yo is found formed on the analogy of Masc. in i (short); as daö¶iyo.
(e) An Acc. plur. in ye is occasionally met with: daö¶iye.
(f) It should be noticed that before no of the Nom. Acc. and Voc. plur. ´ of the base is shortened.
(g) An Acc. sing. in aµ with the semi-vowel y developed before it is met with: daö¶iyaµ.
(h) An Abl. sing. in to is found pretty frequently daö¶ito.

Exercise

Decline like daö¶´ (Masc):
sŒm´, lord. senŒn´, a general.
kapaö´, pauper. sakkh´, a witness.
mant´, minister. yoddh´, warrior.

137. Most Masc. nouns in ´ are not pure substantives, they are adjectives used substantively; their true stem is in in, the Nom. sing. being ´. The true stem of daö¶´ therefore is daö¶in. Properly, all these words belong to the consonantal declension.

Feminine nouns ´ (long)

138. Suffixes

139. Declension of Nad´ (Fem.), River

Remarks.
(a) There is a Gen. plur. in Œnaµ, nadiyŒnaµ.
(b) In all the oblique cases of the sing, final ´ of the base is shortened; also before yo in the plural.
(c) For insertion of y before suffixes beginning with a vowel, see 27, Remark 2.
(d) For the forms nadyŒ, najjŒ, and najjaµ see Rules 71, 74.
(4) In the form najjo, yo is assimilated after the elision of final i.

Exercise

Decline like nad´ (Fem.):
paÊ´, canvas. BŒrŒöas´, Benares.
lakkh´, prosperity. rŒjin´, queen.
s´h´, lioness. dabb´, spoon.
pŒt´, bowl. bhis´, mat
kumŒr´, girl. sakh´, a female friend.
brŒhmaö´, a brahmin woman. taruö´, young woman
bhikkhun´, nun. kŒk´, a female crow.
vŒnar´, ape. mah´, the earth.
yakkh´, ogress. mig´, a doe.
dev´, nymph. vŒp´, a reservoir, tank.

Delension of nouns in u (short)

140. The nouns ending in u (short), are either Masculine, Feminine or Neuter.

Masculine nouns in u (short)

141. Suffixes

Remarks.
(a) In a Nom. and an Acc. plural, yo are sometimes met with in some words: jantuyo, hetuyo.
(b) Before suffixes o and e, in the plural u of the stem or base is strengthened and becomes av. (27(ii)-a)

Exercise

Nouns declined like bhikkhu (Masc.):
pasu, goat. velu, bamboo.
bandhu, relative. bhΚu, the sun.
maccu, death. ucchu, sugar-cane.
bŒhu, arm. setu, bridge.
ketu, flag. katu, sacrifice.
pharasu, axe. ruru, a deer.
taru, tree. hetu, cause.

Feminine nouns in u (Short)

142. Suffixes

143. Declension of Dhenu (Fem.), Cow

Remarks.
(a) An Abl. sing. in to is common: dhenuto, jambuto.
(b) A Nom. plur. in o occurs without strengthening of final u but with insertion of v: dhenèvo.
(c) Final u is, in the plural, lengthened before naµ, hi, bhi and su.

Exercise

Decline like dhenu:
dhŒtu, an element. yŒgu, rice gruel.
rajju, string. kareöu, elephant.
ku, the earth. hanu, jaw.
daddu, ringworm. vaööu, sand.
kŒsu, a hole, pit. kaö¶u, itch.
kacchu, scab. piyaºgu, a medicinal plant.
natthu, nose. vijju, lightning.

Neuter nouns in u (short)

144. Suffixes

145. Declension of Cakkhu (Neut.), Eye

Remarks. There is a form of the Nom. sing. in µ cakkhuµ.

Exercise

Words declined like cakkhu (Neut.):
dhanu, a bow. ambu, water.
dŒru, wood. aru, a wound.
madhu, honey. janu, the knee.
massu, the beard. vatthu, a story.
matthu, whey. Œyu, age.
assu, a tear. vasu, wealth.

146. Declension of Nouns è (long)
(a) This declension includes Masculine and Feminine nouns only.
(b) The suffixes are much the same as those of the u (short) declension, and present no difficulty.

147. Declension of Sayambhè (Masc.), an Epithet of the Buddha

Remarks.
(a) In the Nom., Acc. and Voc. Plur., v is inserted between the suffix o and the stem after the shortening of è.
(b) Final è of the stem is shortened to u in the oblique cases of the singular.

148. Declension of Vadhè (Fem.), a Widow

Remarks.
(a) As in the Masc., final è is shortened in the oblique cases of the sing.
(b) A form in to is also found in the Abl. sing., vadhuto.
(c) In the plural, before yo, final è is shortened.

149. Stems ending in a diphthong

All diphthongic stems have disappeared in PŒli; only one such stem remains, it is the word go, a cow.

Special Nouns

150. (I) Declension of Go (Diphthongic Stem), a Cow

151. (II) Declension of SakhŒ, a Friend
(Sansk. sakhi. The stem is irregular. Masc.)

Remarks. The student will perceive that sakhΠhas forms belonging to stems in ar and others to stems in in. (See: Consonantal Declension.)

152. Consonantal Declension

(a) The Consonantal Declension includes all nouns and adjectives whose stem ends in a consonant.
(b) Nouns the stem of which ends in a consonant, are rather few and special, the majority of the words included in this declension being adjectives ending in vat or mat, and all words ending in a nasal (n) being considered as belonging to the Vowel Declension, by native grammarians.
(c) Most of the words of the Consonantal Declension seem to follow two declensions; some suffixes belong to the vowel, and others to the Consonantal Declension.

153. (I) Stems ending in a nasal (n)

154. Declension of AttΠ(Stem Attan), Self
(Stem in an, Masc.)

Like attΠ(stem: attan) are declined:
ŒtumŒ, self. muddhŒ, head.
asmŒ, stone. addhŒ, road, distance, time.

155. Declension of BrahmΠ(Stem Brahman, Masc.), Brahma

(a) In the Loc. Sing. we meet with the forms in - smiµ, mhi: brahmasmiµ, brahmamhi.

156. Declension of RŒjŒ, (Stem RŒjan Masc.), a King

Remarks.
(a) When the word rŒjŒ is used by itself in a sentence, it follows the above declension, but when it forms the last part of a compound as for instance in dhammarŒjŒ, mahŒrŒjŒ, etc., it follows the declension of Masculine nouns in a, like deva.
(b) The forms of the plural seem to point to a base or stem in u: rŒju.
(c) A few nouns the stem of which ends in an, follow the a declension of Masc. nouns like deva; they are:
vissakamma, the architect of the gods.
vivattacchaddo, He by whom the veil (of ignorance) is rolled back (from this world).
puthuloma, a fish.
yakana, the liver.
athabbana, the fourth veda
and some others.

157. Declension of PumΠ(Stem Puman), a Man

Remarks.
(a) The influence of the a declension Masculine, is clearly discernible throughout.
(b) The word sŒ a dog, given at (128), properly belongs to this declension; this gives the stem, san, from Sanskrit •van. The declension of nouns the stem of which ends in -in, has already been given (130); these words declined like daö¶i, (stem daö¶in) and rather numerous, form the transition between the pure vowel declension and the declension of consonantal-stems.

158. (II) Stems ending in s

159. Declension of Mano (Stem Manas), the Mind

Remarks.
(a) It should be borne in mind that mano is never used in the plural, although the forms are given by some grammarians.
(b) The influence of the a declension is here also clearly seen, principally in the plural, of which in fact, all the forms are after the a declension.
(c) There is also a Neuter form in ni in the plural: manŒni.

160. Native grammarians give the following nouns as belonging to the manas declension, their stems ending in as:
vaco, discourse. tejo, power.
vayo, age. tapo, heat.
ceto, thought. tamo, darkness.
yaso, glory, fame. ayo, iron.
payo, a beverage. siro, the head.
chando, metrics, prosody. saro, a lake.
uro, breast. raho, solitude, privacy.
aho, day. rajo, dust, passion.
ojo, splendour; strength. thŒmo, strength, vigour.
vŒso, cloth, clothing.

Remarks.
(a) aha, day, in the Loc. sing. has the following forms: ahasmiµ, ahamhi, ahe, ahu, ahasi, ahuni.
(b) The words: rajo, ojo, thŒmo and vŒso are included in the manas declension by the Sinhalese grammarians.
(c) The comparative adjectives ending in yo, iyyo, as for instance seyyo, gariyo, follow the manas declension.

161. Declension of Œyu (Stem Œyus), Life

162. III. Stems ending in ar (=SANSK ¨)

163. Declension of SatthŒ, the Teacher (Buddha)
(Stem Satthar, Sansk Castr)

Remarks.
(a) The form of the Gen. sing. in u: satthu, is the base employed in the formation of compound words.
(b) Stems ending in ar (Sansk. ¨) have their Nom. sing. in Œ as pitar (=Sansk. pit¨), Nom. sing. pitŒ; so mŒtar (=mŒt¨), Nom. sing. mŒtŒ. Their base in composition is generally in u.
(c) Before suffix to of the Abl. sing. stems in ar often take the vowel i; as pitito, mŒtito, and sometimes a base piti, mŒti is used in composition: pitipakkhe.
(d) Some words whose stem is in ar, follow the a declension (of deva), for instance: sallakatta (stem sallakattar), a physician; kattara (stem kattarar), a weak person; sota (stem sotar), a hearer.

Exercise

Decline like satthŒ:
netŒ, a guide. nattŒ, a grandson.
mŒtŒ, mother. pitŒ, father.
jetŒ, a conqueror. dŒtŒ, a giver.
kattŒ, an agent. bhŒtŒ, brother.
The words pitŒ and mŒtŒ present some peculiarities.

164. Declension of MŒtŒ, Mother
(Stem MŒtar, Sansk. MŒt¨)

Remarks.
(a) In the oblique cases of the singular, the student will readily recognize the influence of the Feminine declension in the suffixes Œ and µ.
(b) There is also found, rarely, a Gen. sing. in ssa: mŒtussa.

Declension of PitŒ, Father (Stem Pitar, Sansk. Pit¨)

Remarks. In the Dat. and Gen. plur. of mŒtŒ and pitŒ the n is doubled to compensate for the shortening of è (long); hence: mŒtunnaµ, mŒtènaµ and pitunnaµ, pitènaµ.

165. (IV) The words ending in: at (or ant), vat (or vant), mat (or mant), are mostly adjectives and their declension will be given in the chapter on Adjectives.

We shall, however, give here the declension of a few nouns, in at or vant.

166. Declension of Bhavaµ, Sir (Stem in at, or ant)

Remarks.
(a) Bhavaµ is a polite term of address, and it may be translated by "Your Honour."
(b) Native grammarians invariably use it as the sign of the Vocative case.
(c) The Feminine, bhot´, "madam" is regularly declined after the ´ declension Feminine, (ad´).

167. Declension of Arahaµ, Saint (Stem in at, or ant)

Similarly is declined santa, meaning a good man.